New Technologies, Artificial Intelligence and Shipping law in the 21st Century

blockchain
- and liability 117,
  
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  122
- security risks 122
- in the shipping industry 3–16
- smart contracts 17–18
- smart ports 101
blue cards 137, 140, 146
Bolero project 10–11
border control 185
both to blame collisions 142, 143
Botport law 90–104
breach of contract 61
Brexit 188
bulk carriage of commodities 10
bunker contracts 21
bunker fuel 86, 130
burden of proof 24, 125, 155
bystander injury 125, 127

car insurance 179

care of cargo 123–124, 154, 156–158, 161

cargo documentation 117, 122–123, 142

cargo insurance 180, 182

cargo loss 23–25, 28–29, 47–63, 123–124, 140

carriage of goods by sea

domestic statues, judicial doctrines and customary trade practices 25–26
international conventions 23–28

carrier liability 24, 50, 124, 148–161

Central Commission for Navigation of the Rhine (CCNR) 94

certification, electronic 43, 137, 146

channelling liability 112, 125–126

charterparties 6, 8, 18, 19–21, 85, 141–142

charterers 19–20, 75, 107, 112, 113, 120, 122, 139, 141–142, 147

chatbots 178, 182, 187, 188

China 71, 100

choice of forum clauses 15, 16

choice of law clauses 15, 16, 85

ciphers 37

civil procedure rules for disclosure 166–173

cloud computing 176

Code on Genetic Testing and Insurance 181–2

collision avoidance systems 68, 77–78, 98

collisions

and autonomous ships 76–78, 83, 87, 111, 113, 114, 124–125, 142, 143
both to blame collisions 142, 143
product liability 117, 119

collusive behaviours 11

COLREGS (International Regulations for Averting Collisions at Sea 1972) 76–8, 87, 88, 89, 92, 106, 133–5, 152

Comité Maritime International (CMI) 31, 87, 91, 132, 146, 150

Commfides 41

company digital signatures 39, 44

company seals 39, 44

Company Security Officers (CSO) 79–80

condition of goods 149, 156

congestion 70

consignees 7, 28, 33, 49–50, 51, 54, 122

container transport

autonomous ships 69
digitisation of documentation 118
dockers 101
multimodal contracts 26–27
port-to-port basis 26
Rotterdam Rules 29
stowage 156
transport sharing devices/apps 10

continuously unmanned ships (CUS) 68, 74, 83

contract of carriage 26, 27, 28, 31, 34, 51, 62, 124, 140, 144, 154

control of goods in transit 34, 52, 53–56

corruption 95

counterfeiting 9

criminal law and the master 140

Crown immunity 69

cryptocurrencies 3, 17, 40

cryptology 38

custody of goods 52

customary trade practices 26

Customs 103

C-WORKER 7 (ASV Global) 69, 79, 84

cyber insurance 184, 187

cyber resilience 86

cybercrime 101, 147

cybersecurity 77, 86, 111, 115, 122, 147, 154, 180, 184, 186, 187

damage to cargo 123–124, 140

damages 8, 125, 184

data connectivity 111, 115, 129

data management 98, 102–103

data protection 12, 180, 181

Data Sampling 168

data security 12, 18, 44, 45, 60, 103

data sharing 103, 166

decentralized networks 18

decryption keys 37–38, 45

defences 43–45, 46, 49–50, 120, 155

delivery of goods

bills of lading 33–34, 48, 49, 56–57, 118
carrier’s obligation 33–34
definition of ‘delivery’ 53–56
delivery terms 49, 50, 52–53, 56–60, 61, 62
misdelivery 29, 61–62, 122
symbolic delivery 49, 53, 56

delivery orders 56–60, 61–62

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deployed over side equipment 67
digital currencies 17, 40
digital payments 95
digital signatures 36–46
digitisation
- Insurtech 178–190
- legal technology 165–177
- and product liability 116–120
- smart ports 102–103
disabling want of knowledge 151
disclosure in shipping litigation 165–177
disposal of cargo in transit 29–30, 157, 158
dispute resolution 15–17, 165–177, 185–186
distress signals 136
distributed ledger technology (DLT) 5–7, 8, 9, 12, 18, 41, 117, 122
distrust, mutual 17
DNV GL 70
dockers 101–102
document, definition of 167–168, 173
document of title function 29, 31, 32, 117
door-to-door transactions 25, 33
double-spending 40–41
drones 14, 72, 94, 100, 101, 105, 180
drugs trade 101
due despatch 141
due diligence 42, 113, 149, 153, 154–155, 160
dumping (waste) at sea 81
duty of care 84, 121, 124, 128
duty to provide assistance 74, 135–137, 144

ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display and Information System) 98, 176
e-commerce 14, 16, 29
e-contracts 16
e-disclosure databases 167–168
e-documentation 117, 122, 165–177
e-freight forwarding 100
electronic certificates 43, 137, 146
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) 29–30, 103, 117, 176
electronic disclosure 167–173
electronic messages 11
electronic monitoring systems 124
electronic release systems (ERS) 48, 49–50, 51
electronic signatures 7, 36–46
electronically stored information (ESI) 26, 27, 171
emails 48, 57, 60, 166, 169, 171, 172, 177
e-malfunctions 122
emergency situations 68, 92, 98, 110, 129, 153
e-navigation 98
encryption 11, 37–38, 41, 45, 122
enforceability of international contracts 15–17
entitlement to the cargo 40
environmental issues 86, 130
environmental standards 7
ESSDOCS 117
estoppel 49, 60–61
ethical dilemmas

evidential value of automatic detection systems 96

facilitation payments 95
facsimiles of signatures 36
fault liability 108, 109, 111, 119, 122, 160
ferries, autonomous 106
fines 137
Finferries 105–106
fireboats 69, 93
flag state jurisdiction 73–74, 79, 131–132
forgeries 44, 46
fraud 9, 185
freedom of contract 100
freight forwarders 100
functional equivalence 31
Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) 187

gamification 178, 180, 181
GENCON 19, 143–144
genetic data 180, 181–182
geographical information systems (GIS) 182
Germany 71, 190
GIANO 69
giving way 134
global marketplace 17
global standardization 19
good faith defences 44
GPS (Global Positioning System) 86, 176
Greenhouse gas emissions 9, 70

hacking 60, 111, 122, 129, 145, 147, 154, 186
Hamburg 101
Harbour masters 94, 96-97
hardware failure 121, 127
hauliers 48
hazardous/toxic materials 82, 109, 125, 158
health insurance 180–181, 182
Himalaya clauses 8, 140
hold harmless provisions 85
holders of electronic records 33
holograms 105
Hull Fouling Clause 141
human error 86, 115, 116, 129, 150, 160, 189
hybrid autonomous-manned vessels 68, 74, 106, 149
hybrid blockchain 12, 15
hyperloops 101

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IBM 183
ice risk areas 143
IDEA 20
identity verification 36, 39, 41, 43, 45
ILO (International Labour Organization) 102, 138
IMDG Code 142
IMO (International Maritime Organization) 78, 87–88, 89, 91, 97, 98, 106, 113, 130, 132, 146, 147
imputation 50, 51
IMSBC Code 142
indemnity clauses 85
India 73
information asymmetries 9
infrastructure
- digital signatures 41–42
- electronic signatures 42–43
- smart ports 94–95
inland destinations, carriage to 27
inland waterways 94, 129
insolvency 84
inspection regimes 96–97, 112, 113
insurance
- and artificial intelligence 178–190
- and autonomous ships 75, 83, 85–86, 137, 146
- claims handling 184–185
- document disclosure 167
- fraud 185
- Insurtech 178–190
- product liability 118, 123
- third-party liabilities 111, 112, 115
- underwriting 178–184
- Usage Based Insurance (UBI) 179–181
Inter-Club Agreement 120, 142
Interfishmarket 10
intermediaries
- avoiding use of with blockchain 10
- avoiding use of with smart contracts 13
- in global marketplace 17
- lawyers 13–14
internal waters 73
International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) 98, 99
international contracts, enforceability 15–17
international conventions
- autonomous shipping 73–84, 130
- carriage of goods by sea 23–25
- definition of ‘ship’ 71
- other modes of carriage 26–28
- ports 91
International Group of P&I Clubs 85–86
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 75
International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code 79–80
International Transport Forum, OECD 3
international waters 88
International Working Group for Maritime Law and Unmanned Craft (IWG) 87–88
Internet of Things (IoT) 9, 181, 182, 184
interoperability issues 18, 41–42
ISM (International Safety Management) Code 79
ISPS Code 79–80
IT managers and smart contracts 13
- see also software producers and liability; voyage programmers

Japan 183
jettison 143–144, 157, 158
job losses 74, 101
jurisdiction issues 15, 16, 73, 85, 140

keys (physical) 54–55
knock-for-knock provisions 85
knowledge imputed 50, 51
Kongsberg 69, 129
KOTUG 69

labour laws 102, 138–139
lack of authority defence 44, 46
large vendors 14
legal technology, disclosure in shipping litigation 165–177
Lemonade Inc 184, 187
less container load (LCL) transport 10
liability
- after discharge, before delivery 50
- and artificial intelligence 188–189
- and autonomous shipping 74–76, 88
- blockchain 8
- carrier liability 24, 50, 124, 148–161
- channelling liability 112, 125–126
- electronic signatures 42–43, 45
- fault-based liability 108, 109, 111, 119, 122, 160
- limited liability 74–75, 113–114, 119, 120, 124, 140
- in the maritime transport industry generally 8
- Nairobi Convention (Nairobi wreck removal convention 2007) 82–83
- online intermediaries 100
- pollution liability 125
- product liability 116–128
- Rotterdam Rules 28–29, 31
- several liability 119
- smart ports 95, 96
- software producers and liability 155
- strict liability 84, 88, 107–110, 121, 125, 126–128, 189
- terminal operators 101
lie detector technology 185
limitation of liability 74–75, 113–114, 119, 120, 124, 140
liner transportation 10
linesmen 100
liquidation 54
Lloyd’s Emerging Risks and Research 85
Lloyd’s Open Form (LOF) 85
logistics sector 3
logs 141
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look out, requirements for 76, 134
- see also watch keeping requirements
loss of cargo 23–25, 28–29, 47–63, 123–124, 140

MAchine eXecutable Collision regulations for Marine Autonomous Systems research project (MAXCMAS)

machine learning 182, 187, 188

Maersk Line 147

maintenance 68, 70, 87, 113, 130, 141, 146–147, 158

malware 147, 184, 185

manning requirements 131–132

manoeuvring rules 76, 89, 93, 134–135

manufacturer, channelling liability to 112, 113, 117

marine diesel oil (MDO) 130

marine fuel purchasing 21

marine gas oil (MGO) 130

marine hull insurance 183

Marine Industries Alliance 88

Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) 88

Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) 67–89, 106, 130

Maritime Law Association 131, 132

maritime performing parties 101

Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) 87, 106, 130, 147

Maritime Single Windows 103

maritime tracking 103

maritime zones 73

Marsh 183

MASRWG Voluntary Code of Practice 84, 85, 88

master

care of cargo 157
MASRWG Voluntary Code of Practice 89
ship’s delivery orders 58
smart contracts 21
UNCLOS 74
and unmanned vessels 74, 88, 129–147

mates’ receipts 142

metadata 166, 169, 171

MIB (Motor Insurers’ Bureau) 190

middlemen see intermediaries

misappropriation of cargo 47–49

misdelivery 29, 61–62, 122

mitigation 45, 181

monitoring systems 69, 86, 118, 124, 129, 133, 146, 158, 176

mooring men 100

mortgage 84

multimodal transactions 8, 25, 26–27

Mummery LJ

MUNIN (Maritime Unmanned Navigation through Intelligence Networks) 105, 109, 149

nationality of ships 73

native format documents 169–170, 175

nautical fault exception 158–161

navigation

and autonomous ships 76, 83, 86, 107, 110–111, 133
in the definition of a ‘ship’ 70
digitisation 118–119
e-navigation 98
nautical fault exception 160
navigation rights 73
navigation systems and document disclosure 176
product liability 124–126
role of the master 141
smart ports 92, 98
software producers and liability 141

negligence

and autonomous ships 76, 84, 107, 113, 134
electronic signatures 45
master 143, 144
nautical fault exception 159
product liability 116–117, 119, 121, 124–125
seaworthiness 150
and software 122–123

negotiability 29, 33, 50

neutral platforms 10

NKK 120

non-discrimination principle 91

non-permissioned DLT 6–7

non-vessel-operating carriers (NVOC)

Norway 39, 42, 44, 45, 71, 106

Norwegian Forum for Autonomous Ships (NFAS)

Norwegian Maritime Law Commission 42

Norwich Union 179

notify parties 48

NxtPort 103

NYPE (New York Produce Exchange Form) 141–143

off-hire 142
offshore sector 112
oil and gas contracts 85
oil pollution 82, 125, 137, 140
oil record books 137, 140
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) technology 101, 170, 175
oracles 7
original documents 39
owners see shipowners

P&I 49, 85, 118, 119, 123, 125, 128

paper documentation
- e-documents with same
  
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  legal force as 11
- holders of 33
- security of 60
- substitutability with electronic 32
paperless offices 165
paramount clauses 8
passphrases, security of 44, 45
patent applications ,

pay as you drive (PAYD) insurance 179

pay how you drive (PHYD) insurance 179

PDF Advanced Electronic Signatures (PAdES) 39

peer-to-peer systems 9, 17

periodically unmanned bridge (PUB) 68, 74

periodically unmanned ships (PUS) 68, 74, 83

permissioned ledgers 7–8, 12, 15, 18

personal data 12, 180, 181, 182, 186

personal injury claims 75, 125, 127, 139, 184

pilotage assistance 99, 145–146

pilots 93, 99, 139, 143, 145–146

PIN codes 47–63, 101, 118, 122, 123

piracy 86, 142, 145, 157–158

pledges 55

pollution detection 94

pollution liability 125

pollution prevention 79, 80, 82, 108

‘pooling’ cargo 10

port agents 130, 141, 142, 147

port of refuge 143–144

port security officers 97

Port State Control 93, 96–97

Portable Pilot Units (PPUs) 99

ports

autonomous ships coming into 68, 73, 91, 99, 130, 145
crew’s cargo duties 158
port management 94–96
port states 91, 131
security 96, 97
smart ports 90–104

port-to-port basis 33

port-to-port transactions 25, 26, 27

possession of goods 53–56

powers of attorney 45

powers of control 52

predictive coding 173

privacy issues 179–180, 185

product liability 116–128

property damage insurance 85

public blockchains 18

public keys 37, 38, 45–46

Purple Water 69

qualified signatures 40

radar 98, 103

radio communications 67, 74, 92, 98, 103, 129

real-time characteristics of smart contracts 14

real-time data and autonomous ships 77

real-time demand and supply matching 9

real-time tracking and insurance 180

reasonable care 113, 156

reasonableness test 73

reasonably suited standard 154

receipt for goods 31

recklessness 88, 114, 139

recourse action 113

reefers 118

registered owner, channelling liability to 112

reinsurance 183

release notes 48, 49, 50, 51, 52–53, 56–57, 62

relevance tests 166

Remote Operated Vehicles (ROVs) 67

remote operation of ships 67, 89, 99, 105, 106, 110, 130, 145, 149, 152–153, 159

rendering assistance to other ships 74, 135–137, 144

Report of the Working Group on International Legislation on Shipping

reverse engineering 15

revocations 52

right to be forgotten 12

right to demand delivery 33–34

right of disposal 29

risk profiles 86

robotic process automation (RPA) 182

robotics 101, 178, 182

Rolls Royce 69, 105, , 145

Rosetti Marino 69

Rotterdam 69, 90, 94, 100–101

routing recommendations 141

safe manning documents 138

sale and charter of vessel 7

sale of goods 44, 121

sale of services 121, 127

salvage 83, 85, 144

sandboxes, regulatory 190

SARUMS 149

satellite coverage 77

scrapping and recycling 7

seafaring 92, 138–139, 152

seals 39

seamanship 76–77, 78, 134

search, document 166–173, 174–175

search and rescue (SAR) 87

sea waybills 31, 32, 142, 144

seaworthiness 119, 141, 149–155

security, port 96, 97

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security alert systems 79
security risks 79–80, 110
self-mooring systems 100
sensitive data 12
sensors 77, 96, 97, 99, 112, 126, 127, 129, 182
servants of the carrier 144, 159, 160
several liability 119
ship to shore interfaces 86
shipowners
- channelling liability to 112, 114
- due diligence 153
- in-house software development 160
- insurance 137
- product liability 117
- and the role of the master 139, 143, 147
Shipowners’ Club 86
ships, legal definition of 70–72, 73–84,